Typical Values¶

Reference values for technology and fuel parameters. For open data sources to populate these inputs, see Open Data Sources.

Technology Parameters¶

Default values — CCDR methodology

The values below are drawn from the CCDR (Country Climate and Development Report) methodology. A template file and the full CCDR EEX Methodology Note are available for reference.

Work is ongoing to cross-validate and enrich these defaults against open datasets (IRENA, IEA, NREL ATB). See Open Data Sources for relevant resources.

Technology	Fuel	Min. Generation (%)		Heat Rate (MMBtu/MWh)		Ramp-up Rate		Ramp-down Rate		Max. Reserve (%)		Fixed O&M ($/MW/yr)		Variable O&M ($/MWh)		Capex (M$/MW)		Lifetime	Round-trip Eff.
Technology	Fuel	Range	Std.	Range	Std.	Range	Std.	Range	Std.	Range	Std.	Range	Std.	Range	Std.	Range	Std.	Lifetime	Round-trip Eff.
ST	Coal	25–40%	30%	7.7–9.4	8.5	30–100%	50%	30–100%	50%	0%	0%	30k–90k	60k	1.0–5.0	3	1.4–2.6	2	30	—
ST	Lignite	50–60%	55%	9.5–11.0	10.3	30–100%	50%	30–100%	50%	0%	0%	30k–90k	60k	1.0–5.0	3	1.4–2.6	2	30	—
OCGT	Gas	0%	0%	7.7–10.4	9	100%	100%	100%	100%	10–20%	20%	10k–30k	20k	3.0–5.0	4	0.56–1.04	0.8	30	—
OCGT	HFO	0%	0%	8.4–11.4	9.9	100%	100%	100%	100%	10–20%	20%	10k–30k	20k	3.3–5.5	4.4	0.56–1.04	0.8	30	—
OCGT	Diesel	0%	0%	8.4–11.4	9.9	100%	100%	100%	100%	10–20%	20%	10k–30k	20k	3.3–5.5	4.4	0.56–1.04	0.8	30	—
CCGT	Gas	40–50%	45%	5.1–7.7	6.4	100%	100%	100%	100%	3–6%	5%	15k–45k	30k	1.0–3.0	2	0.63–1.17	0.9	30	—
Reservoir Hydro	Water	0%	0%	—	—	100%	100%	100%	100%	5–50%	45%	25k–75k	50k	0.0–1.0	0.5	1.5–5.0	3.3	50	—
ROR	Water	0%	0%	—	—	100%	100%	100%	100%	5–50%	40%	20k–60k	40k	0.0–1.0	0.5	1.5–4.0	2.8	50	—
PV	Solar	0%	0%	—	—	—	—	—	—	0%	0%	10k–20k	15k	0	0	0.6–1.2	0.8	25	—
Wind Onshore	Wind	0%	0%	—	—	—	—	—	—	0%	0%	20k–60k	40k	0	0	1.0–3.0	1.3	30	—
Wind Offshore	Wind	0%	0%	—	—	—	—	—	—	0%	0%	40k–100k	70k	0	0	2.0–4.1	3	30	—
Biomass	Biomass	0%	0%	10.0–15.0	12.5	100%	100%	100%	100%	3–6%	5%	50k–150k	100k	1.3–3.8	2.5	1.0–3.0	2	30	—
Geothermal	Geothermal	—	—	0	0	—	—	—	—	—	—	50k–150k	100k	0	0	2.0–5.0	3.5	30	—
Nuclear	Uranium	50–100%	75%	10.0–15.0	12.5	10–20%	15%	10–20%	15%	0%	0%	100k–200k	150k	2.1–4.9	3.5	2.8–6.5	4	50	—
Battery	Battery	0%	0%	—	—	100%	100%	100%	100%	30–75%	50%	20k–60k	40k	0	0	0.20–0.40	0.3	20	85%
Pumped Hydro	Pumped Hydro	0%	0%	—	—	100%	100%	100%	100%	50–100%	75%	25k–75k	50k	0.0–1.0	0.5	0.70–5.0	2.9	50	80%

ST — Steam Turbine¶

Uses external combustion to heat water into steam (Rankine cycle). Less flexible, suited for base-load operation.

Compatible fuels: Coal, lignite, biomass.

High minimum generation (30–60%) due to thermal inertia of the boiler. Ramp rates are modest, heat rates moderate to high. Capital costs are high; lifetimes often exceed 40 years.

OCGT — Open Cycle Gas Turbine¶

Simple gas turbine (Brayton cycle) with no heat recovery. Valued for fast-start flexibility and reserve capability.

Compatible fuels: Natural gas, LNG, diesel, HFO.

Near-zero minimum generation; can ramp fully within minutes. Heat rates are high (typically >9 MMBtu/MWh). Capital costs are low, but O&M is higher for liquid fuels (HFO requires pre-heating).

CCGT — Combined Cycle Gas Turbine¶

Combines a gas turbine with a steam turbine that recovers exhaust heat, significantly improving efficiency.

Compatible fuels: Natural gas, LNG only (heat recovery system is incompatible with liquid fuels).

Best efficiency among fossil technologies (~6.4 MMBtu/MWh). Moderate flexibility with ramp rates up to 100%/h in modern designs. Capital costs higher than OCGT due to the steam cycle.

ICE — Internal Combustion Engine¶

Reciprocating engines installed as modular blocks. Common for decentralized peaking and grid support.

Compatible fuels: Diesel, HFO, natural gas, LNG, biogas.

Excellent flexibility: very low minimum load per unit, fast start (minutes), frequent cycling. Heat rates ~8–9 MMBtu/MWh on gas. O&M is higher for heavy fuels.

Reservoir Hydro¶

Dispatchable hydro with upstream storage reservoir allowing control over water flow.

Highly flexible — can ramp within seconds to minutes. In EPM, dispatch is optimized seasonally, with capacity factors constraining total energy per season. Lifetimes exceed 50 years; O&M is low.

ROR — Run-of-River Hydro¶

Hydro plant without significant storage. Generation follows river flow with minimal control.

Non-dispatchable and cannot provide reserves. Treated as a renewable variable source in EPM. Lower capital cost than reservoir hydro; long lifetime.

Nuclear¶

Uses nuclear fission to generate steam. Operated for steady base-load.

High minimum generation (>75%) and slow ramp rates due to thermal and safety constraints. Very high capital costs, low variable O&M. Lifetimes can exceed 60 years.

Geothermal¶

Converts underground heat into electricity via flash or binary cycle systems.

Base-load operation only; output modulation is limited to avoid reservoir stress. High capital costs (drilling-intensive); moderate O&M; geographically constrained.

Biomass¶

Burns organic materials through a steam turbine. Renewable if sustainably sourced.

Behaves similarly to coal-fired ST: high minimum generation, limited ramping. Fuel supply logistics are a critical planning factor.

PV — Photovoltaics¶

Converts solar irradiance directly into electricity. Variable and non-dispatchable.

Zero minimum generation; output follows solar angle and cloud cover. Cannot provide reserves unless paired with storage. Costs have declined sharply; typical asset life 25–30 years.

Wind — Onshore and Offshore¶

Converts wind kinetic energy into electricity. Variable and weather-dependent.

Zero minimum generation; ramping follows wind conditions, not system needs. Offshore wind offers higher capacity factors at higher capital and O&M cost.

Battery Storage¶

Electrochemical storage (typically lithium-ion). Ideal for short-duration flexibility.

Near-instantaneous ramp response; round-trip efficiency ~85–90%. Duration limited to a few hours. Declining capital costs; lifespan 10–15 years depending on cycling patterns.

Pumped Hydro Storage¶

Large-scale mechanical storage: pump water uphill when surplus power is available, generate when needed.

Full modulation capability with fast ramp. Round-trip efficiency 75–80%. Very high capital cost due to civil infrastructure; lifetimes exceed 50 years.

Fuel Parameters¶

Fuel Types¶

Fuel	Energy Content	Notes
Coal	20–28 MJ/kg	Solid, abundant, carbon-intensive
Natural Gas	38–42 MJ/m³	Cleanest fossil fuel; requires pipeline or LNG infra
LNG	~50 MJ/kg	Natural gas liquefied at −162°C for transport; regasified before use
HFO	~40 MJ/kg	Refinery residual; requires pre-heating; high emissions
LFO	~42 MJ/kg	Lighter, cleaner than HFO; used in medium-scale generators
Diesel	~43 MJ/kg	High-quality distillate; fast-start; most expensive liquid fuel
Biomass	15–20 MJ/kg	Renewable if sustainably sourced; lower energy density

Fuel Price Methodology¶

EPM uses delivered fuel prices in USD/MMBtu. For both importing and exporting countries, the international benchmark is used — as the actual purchase cost or the opportunity cost of export, respectively.

Steps to estimate delivered price:

Start with an international benchmark (World Bank Pink Sheet, IEA, TradingEconomics)
Add transport and delivery: +1–3 USD/MMBtu for LNG shipping/regasification, +1–2 USD/MMBtu for local distribution
Include taxes, duties, or subsidies where applicable
Convert to USD/MMBtu: 1 MMBtu ≈ 293 kWh, so 1 USD/MMBtu ≈ 3.4 USD/MWh

Reference Prices¶

Fuel	Typical Source	Price (USD/MMBtu)	Equivalent (USD/MWh)
Coal	World Bank Pink Sheet (Australia thermal)	3–4	10–14
Natural Gas	Henry Hub / TTF / JKM	6–10	20–34
LNG	IEA or JKM index	9–12	31–41
HFO	IEA Oil Market Report	12–16	41–55
LFO	IEA or national market	14–18	48–61
Diesel	TradingEconomics, local prices	18–22	61–75
Biomass	IRENA, FAO, or local sources	3–5	10–17

Indicative mid-range 2026 values. Adjust for inflation, country context, and long-term escalation factors (IEA or World Bank forecasts).